Connect
MJA
MJA

Utilisation, access and recommendations regarding technologies for people living with type 1 diabetes: consensus statement of the ADS/ADEA/APEG/ADIPS Working Group

Anthony J Pease, Sofianos Andrikopoulos, Mary B Abraham, Maria E Craig, Brett Fenton, Jane Overland, Sarah Price, David Simmons and Glynis P Ross
Med J Aust 2021; 215 (10): . || doi: 10.5694/mja2.51118
Published online: 21 June 2021

Abstract

Introduction: Type 1 diabetes presents significant challenges for optimal management. Despite intensive glycaemic control being the standard of care for several decades, glycaemic targets are infrequently achieved and the burden of complications remains high. Therefore, the advancement of diabetes management technologies has a major role in reducing the clinical and economic impact of the disease on people living with type 1 diabetes and on health care systems. However, a national framework is needed to ensure equitable and sustainable implementation of these technologies as part of holistic care.

Main recommendations: This consensus statement considers technologies for insulin delivery, glucose sensing and insulin dose advice that are commercially available in Australia. While international position statements have provided recommendations for technology implementation, the ADS/ADEA/APEG/ADIPS Working Group believes that focus needs to shift from strict trial‐based glycaemic criteria towards engagement and individualised management goals that consider the broad spectrum of benefits offered by technologies.

Changes in management as result of this statement: This Australian consensus statement from peak national bodies for the management of diabetes across the lifespan outlines a national framework for the optimal implementation of technologies for people with type 1 diabetes. The Working Group highlights issues regarding equity of access to technologies and services, scope of clinical practice, credentialling and accreditation requirements, regulatory issues with “do‐it‐yourself” technology, national benchmarking, safety reporting, and ongoing patient advocacy.


  • 1 Monash University, Melbourne, VIC
  • 2 Monash Health, Melbourne, VIC
  • 3 Australian Diabetes Society, Sydney, NSW
  • 4 Perth Children’s Hospital, Perth, WA
  • 5 Children’s Diabetes Centre, Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, WA
  • 6 Children’s Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, NSW
  • 7 University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW
  • 8 Central Coast Local Health District, Gosford, NSW
  • 9 University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW
  • 10 Sydney Local Health District, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, NSW
  • 11 Melbourne Health, Melbourne, VIC
  • 12 University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC
  • 13 Western Sydney University, Sydney, NSW



Acknowledgements: 

Anthony Pease received honoraria from the Australian Diabetes Society, for his role in developing the consensus statement.

Competing interests:

Sofianos Andrikopoulos reports past participation in advisory boards and/or receiving honoraria outside the submitted work from GlaxoSmithKline, Novartis, AstraZeneca and Bristol‐Myers Squibb Australia, Eli Lilly Australia, Janssen Cilag, Merck Sharp and Dohme (Australia), Sanofi Aventis, Novo Nordisk and Servier Laboratories. Mary Abraham reports receiving honoraria outside the submitted work from Eli Lilly and Medtronic. Jane Overland reports receiving consultancy fees from Abbott, Medtronic and Roche outside the submitted work. Glynis Ross reports receiving honoraria outside the submitted work from Roche.

  • 1. International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas, 7th ed, 2015, https://www.diabetesatlas.org/upload/resources/previous/files/7/IDF%20Diabetes%20Atlas%207th.pdf (viewed Apr 2021).
  • 2. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (DCCT/EDIC) Research Group; Nathan DM, Zinman B, Cleary PA, et al. Modern‐day clinical course of type 1 diabetes mellitus after 30 years’ duration: the diabetes control and complications trial/epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications and Pittsburgh epidemiology of diabetes complications experience (1983–2005). Arch Intern Med 2009; 169: 1307‐1316.
  • 3. de Ferranti SD, de Boer IH, Fonseca V, et al. Type 1 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association and American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 2014; 37: 2843–2863.
  • 4. Nathan DM; DCCT/EDIC Research Group. The diabetes control and complications trial/epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications study at 30 years: overview. Diabetes Care 2014; 37: 9–16.
  • 5. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group; Nathan DM, Genuth S, Lachin J, et al. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long‐term complications in insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 977‐986.
  • 6. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Diabetes in pregnancy 2014–2015 [Cat. No. CDK 7]. Canberra: AIHW, 2019. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/diabetes/diabetes-in-pregnancy-2014-2015/contents/summary (viewed Apr 2021).
  • 7. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Technology: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes — 2019. Diabetes Care 2019; 42: S71.
  • 8. Diabetes Australia. Insulin pump therapy in Australia: the case for action. Canberra: Diabetes Australia, 2014. https://static.diabetesaustralia.com.au/s/fileassets/diabetes-australia/71ae321b-fc80-46ea-8cea-09940d3a6977.pdf (viewed June 2020).
  • 9. Tanenbaum ML, Hanes SJ, Miller KM, et al. Diabetes device use in adults with type 1 diabetes: barriers to uptake and potential intervention targets. Diabetes Care 2017; 40: 181–187.
  • 10. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Insulin pump use in Australia [Cat. No. CVD 58; Diabetes series No. 18]. Canberra: AIHW, 2012. https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/983a6c0e-55f2-465f-8bdb-d211704523a4/14454.pdf.aspx?inline=true (viewed Apr 2021).
  • 11. Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation. Living with type 1 diabetes: Insulin Pump Program, 2019. https://jdrf.org.au/living-with-t1-diabetes/insulin-pump-program (viewed Nov 2019).
  • 12. Pease A, Szwarcbard N, Earnest A, et al. Glycaemia and utilisation of technology across the lifespan of adults with type 1 diabetes: Results of the Australian National Diabetes Audit (ANDA). Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2021; 171: 108609.
  • 13. Miller KM, Hermann J, Foster N, et al. Longitudinal changes in continuous glucose monitoring use among individuals with type 1 diabetes: international comparison in the German and Austrian DPV and US T1D Exchange Registries. Diabetes Care 2020; 43: e1–e2.
  • 14. National Diabetes Services Scheme. Changes to the NDSS. https://www.ndss.com.au/about-the-ndss/changes-to-the-ndss/ (viewed May 2021).
  • 15. Australian Government, Commonwealth Ombudsman (private health insurance). How health insurance works: private health insurance basics (product tiers). https://www.privatehealth.gov.au/health_insurance/howitworks/producttiers.htm (viewed May 2021).
  • 16. Living Evidence for Diabetes Consortium. Australian evidence‐based clinical guidelines for diabetes 2020: medical device technology for the management of type 1 diabetes. https://app.magicapp.org/#/guideline/E5AbPE (viewed Mar 2021).
  • 17. Insulin pump therapy. Drug Ther Bull 2012; 50: 105–108.
  • 18. McAdams BH, Rizvi AA. An overview of insulin pumps and glucose sensors for the generalist. J Clin Med 2016; 5: 5.
  • 19. Diabetes Australia. Insulin pumps. https://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/insulin-pumps (viewed Nov 2019).
  • 20. Cappon G, Vettoretti M, Sparacino G, Facchinetti A. Continuous glucose monitoring sensors for diabetes management: a review of technologies and applications. Diabetes Metab J 2019; 43: 383–397.
  • 21. Battelino T, Conget I, Olsen B, et al. The use and efficacy of continuous glucose monitoring in type 1 diabetes treated with insulin pump therapy: a randomised controlled trial. Diabetologia 2012; 55: 3155–3162.
  • 22. Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation Continuous Glucose Monitoring Study Group. effectiveness of continuous glucose monitoring in a clinical care environment: evidence from the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation continuous glucose monitoring (JDRF‐CGM) trial. Diabetes Care 2010; 33: 17–22.
  • 23. Pickup JC, Freeman SC, Sutton AJ. Glycaemic control in type 1 diabetes during real time continuous glucose monitoring compared with self monitoring of blood glucose: meta‐analysis of randomised controlled trials using individual patient data. BMJ 2011; 343: d3805.
  • 24. Craig ME, Twigg SM, Donaghue KC, et al; Australian Type 1 Diabetes Guidelines Expert Advisory Group. National evidence‐based clinical care guidelines for type 1 diabetes in children, adolescents and adults. Canberra: Australian Government, Department of Health and Ageing; 2011. https://diabetessociety.com.au/documents/Type1guidelines14Nov2011.pdf (viewed Apr 2021).
  • 25. Liu NF, Brown AS, Folias AE, et al. Stigma in people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. Clin Diabetes 2017; 35: 27–34.
  • 26. Huckvale K, Adomaviciute S, Prieto JT, et al. Smartphone apps for calculating insulin dose: a systematic assessment. BMC Med 2015; 13: 106.
  • 27. Hirsch IB, Battelino T, Peters AL, et al. Role of continuous glucose monitoring in diabetes treatment. Arlington, VA: American Diabetes Association, 2018. https://professional.diabetes.org/sites/professional.diabetes.org/files/media/final_ada-abbott_cgm_compendium_final.pdf (viewed May 2021).
  • 28. Rodbard D. Continuous glucose monitoring: a review of successes, challenges, and opportunities. Diabetes Technol Ther 2016; 18 (Suppl): S2–S13.
  • 29. Tauschmann M, Thabit H, Bally L, et al. Closed‐loop insulin delivery in suboptimally controlled type 1 diabetes: a multicentre, 12‐week randomised trial. Lancet 2018; 392: 1321–1329.
  • 30. Benhamou P‐Y, Franc S, Reznik Y, et al. Closed‐loop insulin delivery in adults with type 1 diabetes in real‐life conditions: a 12‐week multicentre, open‐label randomised controlled crossover trial. Lancet Digit Health 2019; 1: e17–e25.
  • 31. Brown SA, Kovatchev BP, Raghinaru D, et al. Six‐month randomized, multicenter trial of closed‐loop control in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2019; 381: 1707–1717.
  • 32. Bally L, Thabit H, Kojzar H, et al. Day‐and-night glycaemic control with closed‐loop insulin delivery versus conventional insulin pump therapy in free‐living adults with well controlled type 1 diabetes: an open‐label, randomised, crossover study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2017; 5: 261–270.
  • 33. Thabit H, Tauschmann M, Allen JM, et al. Home use of an artificial beta cell in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2015; 373: 2129–2140.
  • 34. Pease A, Lo C, Earnest A, et al. The efficacy of technology in type 1 diabetes: a systematic review, network meta‐analysis, and narrative synthesis. Diabetes Technol Ther 2020; 22: 411–421.
  • 35. Pease A, Lo C, Earnest A, et al. Time in range for multiple technologies in type 1 diabetes: a systematic review and network meta‐analysis. Diabetes Care 2020; 43: 1967–1975.
  • 36. Bekiari E, Kitsios K, Thabit H, et al. Artificial pancreas treatment for outpatients with type 1 diabetes: systematic review and meta‐analysis. BMJ 2018; 361: k1310.
  • 37. Lal RA, Basina M, Maahs DM, et al. One year clinical experience of the first commercial hybrid closed‐loop system. Diabetes Care 2019; 42: 2190–2196.
  • 38. Sherr JL. Closing the Loop on Managing youth with type 1 diabetes: children are not just small adults. Diabetes Care 2018; 41: 1572–1578.
  • 39. Weaver KW, Hirsch IB. The hybrid closed‐loop system: evolution and practical applications. Diabetes Technol Ther 2018; 20: S216–S223.
  • 40. Medtronic Australia. Products: MiniMed 670G [website]. Medtronic, 2020. https://www.medtronic-diabetes.com.au/products/minimed-670g (viewed Mar 2020).
  • 41. Pease AJ, Zomer E, Liew D, et al. Cost‐effectiveness analysis of a hybrid closed‐loop system versus multiple daily injections and capillary glucose testing for adults with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Technol Ther 2020; 22: 812–821.
  • 42. Australian Government, Department of Health. Private health insurance: prostheses list part C — other. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2019. https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/prostheses-list (viewed Nov 2019).
  • 43. Australian Government, Department of Health. Private health insurance reforms: gold, silver, bronze, basic product tiers [website]. https://www1.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/private-health-insurance-reforms-fact-sheet-gold-gilver-bronze-basic-product-categories (viewed Nov 2019).
  • 44. National Diabetes Services Scheme. Continuous and flash glucose monitoring eligibility assessment (type 1 diabetes: age under 21 years). https://www.ndss.com.au/about-the-ndss/ndss-forms (viewed Mar 2020).
  • 45. National Diabetes Services Scheme. Changes to the NDSS — continuous glucose monitoring initiative: FreeStyle Libre added and eligibility criteria streamlined from 1. March 2020. https://www.ndss.com.au/about-the-ndss/changes-to-the-ndss/changes-to-the-ndss-from-1-march-2020/ (viewed Oct 2020).
  • 46. National Diabetes Services Scheme. How to access a free blood glucose meter. 2019. https://www.ndss.com.au/wp-content/uploads/changes-to-ndss/from-1-dec-2018/20181201-fact-sheet-how-to-access-free-blood-glucose-meter.pdf (viewed Nov 2019).
  • 47. Australian National Adult Insulin Pump Therapy Working Group. Provision of quality care for adults with type 1 diabetes requiring insulin pump therapy (IPT). Infusystems Asia 2013; 8: 1–6.

Author

remove_circle_outline Delete Author
add_circle_outline Add Author

Comment
Do you have any competing interests to declare? *

I/we agree to assign copyright to the Medical Journal of Australia and agree to the Conditions of publication *
I/we agree to the Terms of use of the Medical Journal of Australia *
Email me when people comment on this article

Online responses are no longer available. Please refer to our instructions for authors page for more information.