Hepatitis B and C in New South Wales prisons: prevalence and risk factors
Tony G Butler, Kate A Dolan, Mark J Ferson, Linda M McGuinness, Phillip R Brown and Peter W Robertson
MJA 1997; 166: 127
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Abstract - Introduction - Methods - Laboratory methods - Statistical methods - Results - Participants - Serology and risk factors - Discussion - Acknowledgements - References - Authors' details
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©MJA1997
Among inmates entering the Victorian prison system in 1991 and 1992,
39% were positive for hepatitis C antibody (including 64% of those
reporting a history of injecting illegal drugs), 33% were positive
for hepatitis B antibody and 2.5% for hepatitis B surface antigen.11
There are no recent studies of the prevalence of infection with
hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV and HCV) in New South Wales prisons. Our
study aimed to determine the prevalence of HBV and HCV infection among
inmates entering the NSW correctional system and to examine the risk
factors associated with these infections.
At the time of our survey, all inmates entering NSW prisons were
routinely screened for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) by
public health nurses of the Corrections Health Service. Inmates were
also invited to participate in the hepatitis survey. Recruitment
depended on the nurses' availability to enrol inmates during HIV
screening, and in busy periods it was not always possible to enrol all
new inmates. No information was sought from those who did not agree to
participate.
Inmates who agreed to participate were briefed on the project and
informed that a consent form had to be signed, a blood specimen was
needed, and a risk factor questionnaire would be administered by the
nurse. Nurses also asked inmates to describe ways in which hepatitis
can be transmitted.
All inmates who tested positive for HBV and HCV antibodies were
counselled by public health nurses. HCV-positive inmates routinely
receive follow-up liver function tests. Inmates who reported having
had HBV vaccination were given booster vaccination if antibody tests
indicated they were not immune. All other inmates who tested negative
for HBV core antibody were offered hepatitis B vaccination.
Ethics approval for the study was granted by the Eastern Sydney Area
Health Service Ethics Committee and the NSW Department of Corrective
Services.
Inmates who reported having been vaccinated against hepatitis B were
tested for HBV surface antibody with the HBsAb-enzyme immunoassay
(General Biologicals, Taiwan). A level of 30 IU/mL was considered the
minimum necessary for immunity.
HCV antibody was detected with the Innotest HCVAbIII assay
(Innogenetics, Belgium). Reactive samples were retested in
duplicate and, if again reactive, were tested with anti-HCV (Murex,
Dartford). Samples that were reactive in each of the two types of assay
were classified as positive, and those with discrepant results as
equivocal.
The 408 subjects were aged 17-73 years (mean, 30.6 years; standard
deviation, 10.1), and 296 (73%) had been imprisoned previously.
Country of origin was: Australia, 80%; Europe, 8.6%; New Zealand and
the Pacific Islands, 3.5%; Asia, 2.7%; the Middle East, 2.7%; and
elsewhere or unknown, 2.5%. Forty-one inmates (10%) identified
themselves as Aboriginal.
No significant differences were found between Aboriginal and
non-Aboriginal inmates in prevalence of HBV core and HCV antibodies.
However, the HBV carrier rate was significantly higher among
Aboriginals (12% versus 2.2%; c2
=11.8; P < 0.001). Among those reporting hepatitis
B vaccination, more Aboriginals (50%) than non-Aboriginals (32%)
had developed immunity, but the difference was not significant.
The association between risk behaviours and HBV and HCV infection is
shown in Box 2. The risk of each infection was significantly increased
by a history of injecting drug use, previous imprisonment, sharing of
injecting equipment, age over 25 years, injecting drug use during
previous imprisonment, and tattooing (P< 0.05 or less).
Risk also increased significantly with increasing numbers of
previous imprisonments (P< 0.01 or less). Risk of HCV
infection was also significantly increased by tattooing, sex with an
injecting drug user and presence of HBV antibodies (P<
0.001). Among the 67 inmates who reported injecting drug use during a
previous imprisonment, 77% were positive for HCV antibody and 56% for
HBV antibody. In addition, among the 150 inmates positive for HCV
antibody, only 14 (9%) did not report a history of injecting drug use.
The following independent variables were entered into a logistic
regression model, with HBV and HCV infection as separate outcome
variables: injecting drug use, sex with an injecting drug user,
tattoos, Aboriginality, age group (over 25 years versus 25 years and
under), previous imprisonment, and HBV or HCV infection. For HCV
infection, significant predictors were injecting drug use (odds
ratio [OR], 19.9; P< 0.001), presence of HBV
antibody (OR, 5.6; P< 0.001), and previous imprisonment
(OR, 3.9; P< 0.001). For HBV infection, significant
predictors were presence of HCV antibody (OR, 6.2; P<
0.001), and age over 25 years (OR, 3.4; P< 0.001).
Among the 85 inmates positive for both HBV and HCV antibodies, 83 (98%)
reported previous imprisonment, 78 (92%) reported injecting drug
use, 40 (47%) reported sharing injecting equipment, 64 (75%) had
tattoos, and 31 (36%) reported being tattooed in prison.
Inmates' knowledge of risk factors for hepatitis B and C transmission
is shown in Box 3 (below). Few inmates were knowledgeable about risk factors,
with injecting drug use nominated by only 20% and tattooing by only 2%.
However, those who had been imprisoned previously were
significantly more likely to identify injecting drug use as a risk
factor than those new to the correctional system, and significantly
less likely to answer "no idea" about risk factors.
Extrapolating our results to the current NSW male prison population
of over 6000 implies that almost 2000 inmates are likely to have been
exposed to HBV, about 200 are HBV carriers, and over 2000 are
HCV-antibody-positive. In contrast, there were 25 HIV-positive
inmates in NSW correctional centres at the time of the study (0.4%; 23
male and 2 female) (unpublished data).
NSW prison inmates are offered hepatitis B vaccination if their
sentences exceed six months and they are considered "at risk".
However, inmates with shorter sentences may also be at risk. We
believe that all inmates have the right to be protected from possible
infection and that all should start a course of hepatitis B
vaccination on entry to the correctional system. It may be
appropriate to use recently described accelerated vaccination
schedules, which provide protective levels of anti-hepatitis B
surface antibody relatively quickly.15
In addition, if hepatitis B vaccination courses are not completed in
prison, inmates should be educated about the need to complete them
after release. We found that among the 108 inmates (26%) who reported
having had hepatitis B vaccination only a third were immune, possibly
because of failure to complete the recommended vaccination
schedule. Vaccination history could not be verified.
We found that previous imprisonment was a significant risk factor for
HCV infection, suggesting that measures to minimise the spread of
hepatitis within prisons are essential. In addition, as many
injecting drug users spend time in prison, it is an appropriate point
for intervention to break the cycle of infection by educating them
about risks for hepatitis transmission and providing vaccination.
Prison education programs seem to have improved awareness about
transmission of hepatitis, as inmates with a prison history were more
likely to know the role of injecting drug use and less likely to have "no
idea" about hepatitis transmission. However, knowledge was still
poor, and only 2% of inmates identified tattooing as a risk factor for
hepatitis transmission, which is of concern given the popularity of
tattooing in this population. The link between tattooing and HCV
infection has been identified elsewhere,16,17 and should receive more
emphasis in hepatitis education programs. The recent decision by the
NSW Department of Corrective Services to make condoms available in
prisons may reduce hepatitis transmission. Other measures, such as
removing obstacles for accessing bleach, and needle exchange,
should also be considered in the fight to curb the spread of hepatitis.
Our findings suggest that chronic hepatitis may become one of the
prison system's major health concerns over the next two decades.
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©MJA 1997
Abstract
Objectives: To determine the prevalence of
hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among
inmates entering the New South Wales correctional system and to
examine risk factors for infection.
Design: Cross-sectional survey.
Setting: Reception Centre at Long Bay Correctional
Centre, Sydney, New South Wales, June to December 1994.
Participants: 408 adult male inmates
received at the reception centre (28% of the 1450 new inmates eligible
for compulsory HIV testing).
Outcome measures: Presence of HBV core and surface
antibody and surface antigen; HCV antibody; risk factors; inmates'
knowledge about risk factors.
Results: 37% of inmates tested positive for HCV
antibody, 31% for HBV core antibody and 3.2% for HBV surface antigen
(indicating recent infection or carrier status). Among those who
reported a history of injecting illegal drugs, rates rose to 66% for
HCV antibody and 43% for HBV core antibody. Prevalence of HBV and HCV
antibodies was similar in Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal inmates,
but HBV antigen carrier rate was significantly higher among
Aboriginals (12% versus 2.2%). Knowledge about hepatitis risk
factors was poor (only 20% named injecting drug use), although
recidivists were significantly better informed than those new to the
correctional system. Multivariate analysis identified injecting
drug use, past exposure to hepatitis B virus and previous
imprisonments as significant predictors for HCV infection, and age
over 25 years and HCV antibodies for HBV infection.
Conclusions: Results suggest that about a third of
adult male prisoners entering the NSW correctional system may have
been infected with HBV or HCV. Measures such as education about
hepatitis risk factors and HBV vaccination are needed to reduce
hepatitis transmission in this population.
MJA 1997; 166: 127-130
Introduction
The reported high prevalence of hepatitis B and C in prison
populations is attributed to the disproportionate number of people
in prisons who engage in risk behaviours, particularly injecting
illegal drugs.1-8 It is
estimated that up to 60% of inmates are committed for drug-related
offences.9 Further, an
Australian study estimated that during their incarceration 25%-44%
of inmates occasionally injected illegal drugs, 14%-34% engaged in
occasional anal intercourse and 5%-18% did both.10
Methods
The study was performed at the Reception Centre at Long Bay
Correctional Centre, Sydney, NSW, from June to December 1994. The
Reception Centre receives about 51% of adult males entering
the NSW correctional system, most of whom are then transferred to
other prisons.
Laboratory methods
HBV core antibody (indicating past exposure) was tested with an
anti-HBc enzyme immunoassay kit (General Biologicals, Taiwan).
Samples positive for HBV core antibody were tested for HBV surface
antigen (indicating carrier status) with the HBsAg-enzyme
immunoassay (Murex, Dartford); positive results were confirmed by
HBs reverse passive haemagglutination assay (Serodia, Tokyo).
Statistical methods
Relative risks were calculated with the statistical software Epi
Info-6,12 and logistic
regression was performed with the software SPSS-6. 13 The c 2 test was used to test for association
between Aboriginality and serostatus.
Results
Participants
About 1450 inmates were tested for HIV at the Long Bay Reception Centre
between June and December 1994. Of these, 410 adult males (28%)
consented to be screened for HBV and HCV antibodies. It is not known how
many of the remainder were not invited to participate and how many
refused. Two inmates were counted twice as they were released and
reincarcerated during the study period. Results of their second
tests were excluded from the analysis.
Serology and risk factors
Prevalence of HBV and HCV antibodies and HBV antigens is shown in Box 1 (below).
About a third of inmates were positive for HBV core antibody (31%) or
for HCV antibody (37%), with 21% positive for both. Among those who
reported having received HBV vaccination, only 34% had HBV surface
antibody levels (indicating immunity).
Discussion
Our results agree with those of a 1991-1992 study of Victorian prison
inmates.11 We found that 37%
of inmates were positive for HCV antibodies (39% in Victoria), 31% for
HBV antibodies (33% in Victoria), and 3.2% for HBV surface antigen B
(2.5% in Victoria). Our results also agree with those of two Victorian
studies, which found rates of 62% and 68%, respectively, for HCV
infection among injecting drug users.8,14
Acknowledgements
The study was funded in part by a grant from the NSW Health Department
AIDS/Infectious Diseases Branch. We wish to thank the nursing staff
at the NSW Corrections Health Service for assistance in data
collection (Amanda Christensen, Sheryl Frewin, Marion Grey,
Cherylyn Jesson, Linda Kemp, Jodie Lee, and Sandra Parsons).
References
(Received 10 Jan, accepted 21 Oct, 1996)
Authors' details
New South Wales Health Department, AIDS/Infectious Diseases
Branch, Sydney, NSW.
Tony G Butler, MSc, Public Health Officer.
National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South
Wales, Sydney, NSW.
Kate A Dolan, BSc, Research Officer.
South Eastern Sydney Area Health Service, Sydney, NSW.
Mark J Ferson, FRACP, FAFPHM, Director of Public Health.
NSW Corrections Health Service, Long Bay Correctional Centre,
Sydney, NSW.
Linda M McGuinness, Grad Dip HSc, RN, Assistant Director of
Nursing; Phillip R Brown, MBA, FAFPHM, Chief Executive
Officer.
Microbiology Department, Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney, NSW.
Peter W Robertson, PhD, Serologist.
No reprints will be available. Correspondence: Mr T G Butler, NSW
Health Department, AIDS/Infectious Diseases Branch, Locked Bag
961, North Sydney, NSW 2059.
<URL: http://www.mja.com.au/>
© 1997 Medical Journal of Australia.
Received 4 July 2022, accepted 4 July 2022
- Tony G Butler
- Kate A Dolan
- Mark J Ferson
- Linda M McGuinness
- Phillip R Brown
- Peter W Robertson