References

Diagnosis

• Garnero P, Hausher E, Chapuy MC, et al. Markers of bone resorption predict fractures in elderly women: the EPIDOS study. J Bone Mineral Res 1995; 11: 1531-1538.
• Hans D, Dargent-Molina P, Schott AM, et al. Ultrasonographic heel measurements to predict hip fracture in elderly women: the EPIDOS Prospective Study. Lancet 1996; 348: 511-514.
• Marshall D, Johnell O, Wedel H. Meta-analysis of how well measures of bone mineral density predict occurrence of osteoporotic fractures. BMJ 1996; 312: 1254-1259.
• Nguyen T, Sambrook PN, Kelly P, et al. Prediction of osteoporotic fractures by postural instability and bone density. BMJ 1993; 307: 1111-1115.
• Ross PD, Davis JW, Epstein RS, Wasnich RD. Pre-existing fractures and bone mass predict vertebral fracture in women. Ann Intern Med 1991; 114: 919-923.

Health economics and epidemiology

• Geelhoed E, Harris A, Prince R. Cost-effectiveness analysis of hormone replacement therapy and lifestyle intervention for hip fracture. Aust J Public Health 1994; 18: 153-160.
• Jones G, Nguyen T, Sambrook PN, et al. Symptomatic fracture incidence in elderly men and women: the Dubbo Osteoporosis Epidemiology Study (DOES). Osteoporosis Int 1994; 4: 277-282.
• Jones G, Nguyen T, Sambrook PN, et al. Progressive loss of bone in the femoral neck in elderly people: longitudinal findings from the Dubbo Osteoporosis Epidemiology Study. BMJ 1994; 309: 691-695.
• March L, Chamberlain A, Cameron I, et al. Report from the Northern Sydney Area Fractured Neck of Femur Health Outcomes Project. Sydney, 1996. (ISBN 0731096339)
• Randell A, Sambrook PN, Nguyen TV, et al. Direct clinical and welfare costs of osteoporotic fracture in elderly men and women. Osteoporosis Int 1995; 5 427-432.
• Tosteson ANA, Rosenthal DI, Melton LJ, Weinstein MC. Cost effectiveness of screening perimenopausal white women for osteoporosis: bone densitometry and hormone replacement therapy. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113: 594-603.
• Wasnich RD, Davis JW, Ross PD. Spine fracture risk is predicted by non-spine fractures. Osteoporosis Int 1994; 4: 1-5.

Prevention

• Aloia JF, Vaswani A, Yeh JK. Calcium supplementation with and without hormone replacement therapy to prevent postmenopausal bone loss. Ann Intern Med 1994; 120: 97-103.
• Christiansen C, Christensen MS, McNair P, et al. Prevention of early postmenopausal bone loss: controlled 2-year study in 315 normal females. Eur J Clin Invest 1980; 10: 273-279.
• Colditz GA, Hankinson SE, Hunter DJ, et al. The use of estrogens and progestins and the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 1589-1593.
• Dawson-Hughes B, Dallal GE, Krall EA, et al. A controlled trial of the effect of calcium supplementation on bone density in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 878-883.
• Ettinger B, Genant HK, Cann CE. Postmenopausal bone loss is prevented by treatment with low-dosage estrogen with calcium. Ann Intern Med 1987; 106: 40-45.
• Felson DT, Zhang YQ, Hannan MT, et al. The effect of postmenopausal estrogen therapy on bone density in elderly women. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 1141-1146.
• Grodstein F, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, et al. Postmenopausal estrogen and progestin use and the risk of cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 453-461.
• Lafferty FW Fiske ME. Postmenopausal estrogen replacement: long-term cohort study. Am J Med 1994; 97: 66-77.
• Lindsay R, Hart DM, Forrest C, Baird C. Prevention of spinal osteoporosis in oophorectomised women. Lancet 1980; 2: 1151-1153.
• Maxim P, Ettinger B, Spitalny GM. Fracture protection provided by long-term estrogen treatment. Osteoporosis Int 1995; 5: 23-29.
• Naessen T, Persson I, Thor L, et al. Maintained bone density at advanced ages after long term treatment with low dose oestradiol implants. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1993; 100: 454-459.
• National Health and Medical Research Council. Recommended dietary intakes for use in Australia. Canberra: NHMRC, 1991.
• Nguyen T, Kelly PJ, Sambrook PN, et al. Life style factors and bone density in the elderly: implications for osteoporosis prevention. J Bone Mineral Res 1994; 9: 1339-1346.
• Prince R, Devine A, Dick I, et al. The effects of calcium supplementation (milk powder or tablets) and exercise on bone density in postmenopausal women. J Bone Mineral Res 1995; 10: 1068-1075.
• Province MA, Hadley EC, Hornbrook MC, et al. The effects of exercise on falls in elderly patients: a preplanned meta-analysis of the FICSIT trials. JAMA 1995; 273: 1341-1347.
• Reginster JY, Deroisy R, Denis D, et al. Prevention of postmenopausal bone loss by tiludronate. Lancet 1989; 2: 1469-1471.
• Reginster JY, Deroisy R, Lecart MP, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding trial of intermittent nasal salmon calcitonin for prevention of postmenopausal lumbar spine bone loss. Am J Med 1995; 98: 452-458.
• Reid IR, Ames RW, Evans MC, et al. Effect of calcium supplementation on bone loss in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 460-464.
• Reid IR, Ames RW, Evans MC, et al. Effects of calcium supplementation on bone loss and fractures in postmenopausal women. Am J Med 1995; 98: 331-335.
• Sambrook PN, Birmingham J, Kelly PJ, et al. Prevention of corticosteroid osteoporosis; a comparison of calcium, calcitriol and calcitonin. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1747-1752.
• Stanford JL, Weiss NS, Voigt LF, et al. Combined estrogen and progestin hormone replacement therapy in relation to risk of breast cancer in middle-aged women. JAMA 1995; 274: 137-142.
• Tang MX, Jacobs D, Stern Y, et al. Effect of oestrogen during menopause on risk and age at onset of Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 1996; 348: 429-432.
• Tinetti ME, Baker DI, McAvay G, et al. A multifactorial intervention to reduce the risk of falling among elderly people living in the community. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 821-827.

Treatment

• Aloia JF, Vaswani A, Yeh JK, et al. Calcitriol in the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Am J Med 1988; 84: 401-408.
• Anderson FH, Francis RM, Faulkner K. Androgen supplementation in eugonadal men with osteoporosis: effects of 6 months of treatment on bone mineral density and cardiovascular risk factors. Bone 1996; 18: 171-177.
• Black DM, Cummings SR, Karpf DB, et al. Randomised trial of effect of alendronate on risk of fracture in women with existing vertebral fractures. Lancet 1996; 348: 1535-1541.
• Cauley JA, Seeley DG, Ensrud K, et al. Estrogen replacement therapy and fractures in older women. Ann Intern Med 1995; 122: 9-16.
• Chapuy MC, Arlot ME, Delmas PD, Meunier PJ. Effect of calcium and cholecalciferol treatment for three years on hip fractures in elderly women. BMJ 1994; 308: 1081-1082.
• Chevalley T, Rizzoli R, Nydegger V, et al. Effects of calcium supplements on femoral bone mineral density and vertebral fracture rate in vitamin-D-replete elderly patients. Osteoporosis Int 1994; 4: 245-252.
• Dawson-Hughes B, Harris SS, Krall EA, et al. Rates of bone loss in postmenopausal women randomly assigned to one of two dosages of vitamin D. Am J Clin Nutr 1995; 61: 1140-1145.
• Devogelaer JP, Decooman S, Dedeuxchaisnes CN. Low bone mass in hypogonadal males: effect of testosterone substitution therapy, a densitometric study. Maturitas 1992; 15: 17-22.
• Gallagher JC, Goldgar D. Treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis with high doses of synthetic calcitriol. A randomized controlled study. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113: 649-655.
• Harris ST, Watts NB, Jackson RD, et al. Four-year study of intermittent cyclic etidronate treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis: three years of blinded therapy followed by one year of open therapy. Am J Med 1993; 95: 557-567.
• Lau EM, Woo J, Leung PC, et al. The effects of calcium supplementation and exercise on bone density in elderly Chinese women. Osteoporosis Int 1992; 2: 168-173.
• Lauritzen JB, Petersen MM, Lund B. Effect of external hip protectors on hip fractures. Lancet 1993; 341: 11-13.
• Liberman UA, Weiss SR, Broll J, et al. Effect of oral alendronate on bone mineral density and the incidence of fractures in postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 1437-1443.
• Lufkin EG, Wahner HW, O'Fallon WM, et al. Treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis with transdermal estrogen. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117: 1-9.
• Mulder H, Struys A. Intermittent cyclical etidronate in the prevention of corticosteroid induced bone loss. Br J Rheum 1994; 33: 348-350.
• Ooms ME, Roos JC, Bezemer PD, et al. Prevention of bone loss by vitamin D supplementation in elderly women: a randomized double-blind trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1995; 80: 1052-1058.
• Orimo H, Shiraki M, Hayashi Y, et al. Effects of 1 alpha-hydroxyvitamin D-3 on lumbar bone mineral density and vertebral fractures in patients with postmenopausal osteoporosis. Calcified Tissue Int 1994; 54: 370-376.
• Ott SM, Chesnut CH. Calcitriol treatment is not effective in postmenopausal osteoporosis. Ann Intern Med 1989; 110: 267-274.
• Overgaard K. Effect of intranasal salmon calcitonin therapy on bone mass and bone turnover in early postmenopausal women: a dose-response study. Calcified Tissue Int 1994; 55: 82-86.
• Overgaard K, Hansen MA, Jensen SB, Christiansen C. Effect of salcatonin given intranasally on bone mass and fracture rates in established osteoporosis: a dose-response study. BMJ 1992; 305: 556-561.
• Spector TD, Sambrook PN. Steroid osteoporosis. BMJ 1993; 307: 519-520.
• Reid IR, King AR, Alexander CJ, Ibbertson HK. Prevention of steroid-induced osteoporosis with (3-amino-1-hydroxypropylidene)-1,1-bisphosphonate (APD). Lancet 1988; 1: 143-146.
• Reid IR, Wattie DJ, Evans MC, Stapleton JP. Testosterone therapy in glucocorticoid-treated men. Arch Intern Med 1996; 156: 1173-1177.
• Storm T, Thamsborg G, Steiniche T, et al. Effect of intermittent cyclical etidronate therapy on bone mass and fracture rate in postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1265-1271.
• Tilyard MW, Spears GF, Thomson J, Dovey S. Treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis with calcitriol or calcium. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 357-362.
• Wimalawansa SJ. Combined therapy with estrogen and etidronate has an additive effect on bone mineral density in the hip and vertebrae: Four-year randomized study. Am J Med 1995; 99: 36-42.

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